Just Try to Pass by Without Being Stunned - INDIAN DANCE IN MANHATTAN

Just Try to Pass by Without Being Stunned - INDIAN DANCE IN MANHATTAN


"Of all the open-air programs I have seen in this city, nothing stops the casual pedestrian better than performers in full Indian dance attire....Erasing Borders: Festival of Indian Dance strikes me as the best new arrival on this city's dance scene in the last two years...The length, the rhythmic complexity and the intricate physical coordination of her solo (performed to taped music, composed by Ghulam Ghaus Khan) proved astonishing.
As were its sheer grace and exaltation....And - often - the coordination of upper- and lower-body parts, a lively interplay of both arm gesture and foot rhythm, a complex sense of through-the-body line and unequaled articulation of the eyes. Then the Western viewer begins to appreciate their differences....."

No, this is not inner-city "dutty" culture.... this is thousands of years in the making...don't know why some people think Indians would give this up for superficial, artificial, transient, 3rd world, banana republic "culture"



Dance

Just Try to Pass by Without Being Stunned



The Sa Dance Company performing at Chase Plaza on Wednesday as part of the Downtown Dance Festival and the Erasing Borders Indian dance festival.

By ALASTAIR MACAULAY
Published: August 21, 2009
New York has long had festivals of African and flamenco dance; the dance forms of India are every bit as memorable. For that reason Erasing Borders: Festival of Indian Dance strikes me as the best new arrival on this city's dance scene in the last two years. Individual performances here have often shown various aspects of this area, but the Borders festival affords a survey of its range, while honoring both traditional forms and modern developments.


The festival offered a program on Wednesday at Chase Plaza, and the result was just as varied and rich as the performances I saw in 2008, the festival's first year. (Wednesday's event was part of the Downtown Dance Festival.)
Of all the open-air programs I have seen in this city, nothing stops the casual pedestrian better than performers in full Indian dance attire, moving apparently every muscle from head to toe (not least those of the eye, the fingers and the toes).
Most extraordinary of all on Wednesday was the Chaturang solo, choreographed in the Kathak style of North India by Rohini Bhate (who died last fall) and danced by Prerana Deshpande. When Ms. Deshpande stood at the side of the open-air stage waiting, she - despite a dress of great beauty, with silk colored in aquamarine with mustard trimmings - looked unremarkable: dour, without radiance. Surprise! The length, the rhythmic complexity and the intricate physical coordination of her solo (performed to taped music, composed by Ghulam Ghaus Khan) proved astonishing.
As were its sheer grace and exaltation. No sooner did she start with slow arcs of the arms and torso than you felt the subordination of the dancer to larger principles. In dance there are perhaps three kinds of line. It can be something finite, stretching as far as the performer's limbs.. As part of a through-the-body gesture, it can beam forward into space, often far. And most rarely and movingly, it can seem something through which infinity passes. Indian dance often suggests all three, but it is still an unusual event to feel the third kind in all its transcendence; Ms. Deshpande did so early on.
The solo never paused but, over several minutes, passed through gradual accelerations and more marked changes of dynamics. Was Ms. Deshpande the mistress of her dance or its servant? Both. At times you felt her surrendering to its impulse as she allowed her torso to sway, gorgeously, from side to side; at times you felt the brilliance of her control as she changed or embellished an already elaborate rhythm with her feet. Well into the solo, while keeping up the footwork, she began a series of alternating turns to right and left.
The whole dance was a study in both contrast (looking down or up, moving in and out, bending left or right) and coordination (every body part seemed to come into play in different combinations). And you felt its spontaneity: more than any performer I have seen, Ms. Deshpande seemed to show the change of scale involved when a glance upward becomes, at Chase Plaza, a look up to a sky hemmed in by four skyscrapers.
The three best-known traditional Indian dance forms are Bharatanatyam, Kathak and Odissi, but it's not easy to see all of them in quick succession. Wednesday's performance included vivid examples of the three. The Western eye first notices what they have in common: bare feet; anklets composed of tiny bells; a percussive use of the ball of the foot, the heel and the sole. And - often - the coordination of upper- and lower-body parts, a lively interplay of both arm gesture and foot rhythm, a complex sense of through-the-body line and unequaled articulation of the eyes. Then the Western viewer begins to appreciate their differences.
Still, it was easy to see that the Bharatanatyam and Odissi dances on Wednesday were quite unlike the Kathak solo in many respects. Odissi (from East India) was represented by a male-female duet, Arabhi Pallavi, danced by Rahul Acharya (bare-chested, very slender-waisted, in blue pantaloons) and Nandini Sikand (in purple and pink) of Sakshi Productions. I adored the work's firmly statuesque positions, its riveting use (occasionally) of the pelvis and upper torso tilted drastically sideways away from each other, its flow of gestures, its extraordinary side-to-side language of the eyes (heightened by full eyeliner for both sexes). And I loved the way - in rhythm, spatial design and mutual address - the duet kept changing. (Though the two dancers often do the same movements, or similar ones in question-and-answer dialogue, the man sometimes kneels while addressing her: it's a compliment she may not return.)
The Bharatanatyam form (of South India) - which seems to share quite a few movements with Odissi in particular - was exemplified by two women (Sahasra Sambamoorthi and Srinidhi Raghavan). The work's floor patterns had the two dancers traveling now parallel, now in mirror patterns, sometimes breaking for their own question-and-answer passages; some gestures resembled speech, others were held like statuary. Mainly this Thillana dance, presented by the group Navatman, showed the rhythmic vivacity of Bharatanatyam. I love the way the dancers will advance head, arm and heel in the same direction, then pull them back, all as part of a larger, ebullient meter.
In all three of these dances I felt my breathing accelerate; so much is going on in each. But this Borders performance featured seven companies. The programming showed a good sense of contrast; the spoken introductions before each item were intelligently done, providing plenty of context.
Felicia Norton's performance of Noor, choreographed for Labyrinth Dance Theater by Ms. Norton and Sasha Spielvogel, was a foolish effort to tell a story of heroic World War II spying with soulful earnestness, a few props and fewer dance ideas. From the InDance troupe, Paul Charbonneau's performance of Hari Krishnan's 'Mea Culpa' was a cheerful essay in coarse outrageousness, supposedly - and very campily - imitating the early modern dancer Ted Shawn's all-too-Western concept of Lord Shiva. Emily Watts's performance of the same choreographer's "Firecracker" was longer, more accomplished and scrupulous in its attention to features of Indian dance style, and duller.
The most enchantingly chic item came from the four young women of Infin8. In "In the Blind," their mixture of hip-hop, pop, rock and Bharatanatyam, while suggesting aspects of pursuing a city life amid the current financial meltdown, was delivered with terrific polish and attack.. And their gray, black and white city-style uniforms are among the most charmingly designed nontraditional dance costumes I have seen in months.
No less winning - in maroon and black Indian attire - was the Bollywood team the Sa Dance Company (eight women, five men), lip-synching as they danced with irresistible good humor and high energy. The two young women who sustained a central duet - breathtakingly pretty, like all of the Infin8 women - combined stamina, skill and wonderful glee.
The Downtown Dance Festival continues through Sunday at Battery Park; batterydanceco.com.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/22/arts/dance/22borders.html?_r=2&hpw=&pagewanted=all

PM MANNING, THE MEDIA AND A WEAK OPPOSITION, By Professor Ramesh Deosaran, Independent Senator

Commentary: July 26, 2009

PM MANNING, THE MEDIA AND A WEAK OPPOSITION

By Professor Ramesh Deosaran, Independent Senator

So the Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT), with apparent anxiety, plans to meet the Prime Minister, because, according to its youthful President, Marlon Hopkinson, MATT “should not engage in any public row now with the Prime Minister at this time and we thought the responsible thing to do is to meet with the PM to find out his concerns.”

On July 13 at a PNM mass meeting at Woodford Square, Prime Minister Manning expressed concerns over the media’s role in not educating the public. Judging from high-profile announcements in all three dailies, this MATT-PM meeting looks like a really grand affair, especially since Hopkinson mannishly states: “Of course, we too have concerns.” The high news fling given to this PM meeting suggests some heavy editorial backing too.

Now MATT or any group could meet anybody it wishes in this democratic society, even for a courtesy call. So too could the PM. But what tickles my own curiosity is the reasons advanced by MATT. MATT says it does not want to engage with the PM in any public row. Well, I declare. I thought that is the stuff which makes news. Given the basics of the separation of powers and the critical, robust role which the “free” media is expected to play in-between, I always thought that the relationship between the executive and the media should be consumed by arms-length professionalism and inevitable tension. Ironically, such professionalism is also for the benefit of the Government and its several agencies – not only for bringing muscle to our democracy as a whole.

With the promise of a highly credible, forceful Opposition still in dreamland, a lot now rests on the shoulders of our “free” media. And to have this seeming genuflection by MATT, well, the impression given is not worthy of an industry that is so well protected by the Constitution.

Are people who now buy newspapers, listen to radio and watch television to believe that after this MATT-PM meeting, the media as a whole and its brave and bold staff will go on a penance of good behaviour? Or will MATT tell the PM a thing or two and straighten him out too. Note well, Mr. Manning expressed his concerns at a public political meeting, not at any MATT-sponsored seminar or at a post-cabinet press conference. And he did not speak directly about news bias. In fact, any proper content analysis will tell you that, of whichever party, Government spokespersons and Ministers get the best of all coverage and without much parallel or follow-up analysis. A Minister could say the same thing one week after the next and on each time, he will be assured of an early-page headline.

At an OAS expert round-table on election financing in Miami three months ago, Caribbean pollster, Peter Wickham, described Caribbean journalists as “Minister-driven.” Just last week, veteran journalist Tony Best cautioned our journalists not to appear as “carrier pigeons.” Like one or two other professions, journalists too might wish to be careful about their image.

Now before I come to MATT’s concern about the PM’s concerns regarding the media’s role to “educate” the public, let me in the interest of balance remind MATT that many other political leaders, including Winston Dookeran and Basdeo Panday, have made similar and more heavily loaded complaints about the media. Will MATT now as a broad-minded gesture also meet with them? Now Jack Warner has developed some cutting edge techniques to woo and capture the media so I don’t think he needs MATT. But before I get misunderstood, let me declare that I too share Mr. Manning’s concerns about “educating the public.” And for a very long time too. My professorial instincts compel no less.

But wait, really, is the media’s role, the mass media that is, to “educate” the public, or to inform in an accurate and fair manner about events that matter. And in a timely and news worthy manner. We are talking about the early pages where I am sure Mr. Manning’s concern is assumed to lie. In fact, there are “educational” stories and features on TV and far back in newspapers. So, MATT’s sophistication would be enhanced if it asks the PM to show them a few examples where the media failed “to educate.” It will certainly help if a programme of scholarly research, in addition to a School of Journalism, could be developed on the Caribbean media, thus helping to put “concerns” as Mr. Manning’s on a more reliable footing.

I think that is what the “freedom of the press” and even “freedom of expression” clauses in the Constitution expect. Now you begin to see the dilemmas here. Firstly, the difference between “to educate’ and “to inform.” As referee, the Oxford Dictionary defines “to educate” as “to give intellectual, moral and social instruction.” Could our mass media deliver this, and even if so, how long would the one or even two who succeed remain financially viable on their own? Yes there is the Wall Street Journal and the Washington Post, but here it is competition in the market place, my friends. During my stint as editorial writer for one of our dailies, the editor once told the staff: “A newspaper is not an academic journal nor for sermons.”

Secondly, the Government, at least through finance and management, already has control over three televisions stations, regular “Government Information” spots in all commercial television stations and even the option of radio spots. So why not use these options “to educate” the public?

I am not saying to reach the stage of BBC but surely there is space and the place to educate. Thirdly, I too am worried about “educating our citizens on public affairs” but I am not sure this is the primary role of the mass media. There are other institutions for this. From ethnic cleansing, constitution reform, regional integration, crime policies to corporal punishment, the death penalty and even daily political contestations, there are heaps of propaganda and self-serving, emotionally- driven stories in our media. A lot of this become neutralized if not cleansed by the “right to reply” the next day, but you know what is said about “first impressions.”

So while I agree with the PM’s concerns, I think we need a more deliberate, sustainable and practical way to heal the breach. I hope the medicine concocted at this MATT-PM encounter will not make the patient more sick.

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History of Mathematics in India

History of Mathematics in India

In all early civilizations, the first expression of mathematical understanding appears in the form of counting systems. Numbers in very early societies were typically represented by groups of lines, though later different numbers came to be assigned specific numeral names and symbols (as in India) or were designated by alphabetic letters (such as in Rome). Although today, we take our decimal system for granted, not all ancient civilizations based their numbers on a ten-base system. In ancient Babylon, a sexagesimal (base 60) system was in use.

The Decimal System in Harappa

In India a decimal system was already in place during the Harappan period, as indicated by an analysis of Harappan weights and measures. Weights corresponding to ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 have been identified, as have scales with decimal divisions. A particularly notable characteristic of Harappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy. A bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. Such scales were particularly important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that required roads of fixed widths to run at right angles to each other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. The existence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in Harappan society.

Mathematical Activity in the Vedic Period

In the Vedic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in Vedic texts associated with ritual activities. However, as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations. Thus, to some extent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in Egypt, Babylon and China . The system of land grants and agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. As land was redistributed or consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that required solutions. In order to ensure that all cultivators had equivalent amounts of irrigated and non-irrigated lands and tracts of equivalent fertility - individual farmers in a village often had their holdings broken up in several parcels to ensure fairness. Since plots could not all be of the same shape - local administrators were required to convert rectangular plots or triangular plots to squares of equivalent sizes and so on. Tax assessments were based on fixed proportions of annual or seasonal crop incomes, but could be adjusted upwards or downwards based on a variety of factors. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. Mathematics was thus brought into the service of both the secular and the ritual domains.

Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Examples of geometric knowledge (rekha-ganit) are to be found in the Sulva-Sutras of Baudhayana (800 BC) and Apasthmaba (600 BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars in use during the Vedic era. It is likely that these texts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been acquired much earlier, possibly in the Harappan period. Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square). While some of the formulations are approximations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical understanding of basic geometric principles. Modern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techniques described in the Sulva-Sutras.

Pythagoras - the Greek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the 6th C B.C was familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic geometry from the Sulva Sutras. An early statement of what is commonly known as the Pythagoras theorem is to be found in Baudhayana's Sutra: The chord which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area of double the size. A similar observation pertaining to oblongs is also noted. His Sutra also contains geometric solutions of a linear equation in a single unknown. Examples of quadratic equations also appear. Apasthamba's sutra (an expansion of Baudhayana's with several original contributions) provides a value for the square root of 2 that is accurate to the fifth decimal place. Apasthamba also looked at the problems of squaring a circle, dividing a segment into seven equal parts, and a solution to the general linear equation. Jain texts from the 6th C BC such as the Surya Pragyapti describe ellipses.

Modern-day commentators are divided on how some of the results were generated. Some believe that these results came about through hit and trial - as rules of thumb, or as generalizations of observed examples. Others believe that once the scientific method came to be formalized in the Nyaya-Sutras - proofs for such results must have been provided, but these have either been lost or destroyed, or else were transmitted orally through the Gurukul system, and only the final results were tabulated in the texts. In any case, the study of Ganit i.e mathematics was given considerable importance in the Vedic period. The Vedang Jyotish (1000 BC) includes the statement: "Just as the feathers of a peacock and the jewel-stone of a snake are placed at the highest point of the body (at the forehead), similarly, the position of Ganit is the highest amongst all branches of the Vedas and the Shastras."

(Many centuries later, Jain mathematician from Mysore, Mahaviracharya further emphasized the importance of mathematics: "Whatever object exists in this moving and non-moving world, cannot be understood without the base of Ganit (i.e. mathematics)".)

Panini and Formal Scientific Notation

A particularly important development in the history of Indian science that was to have a profound impact on all mathematical treatises that followed was the pioneering work by Panini (6th C BC) in the field of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. Besides expounding a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology and morphology, Panini provided formal production rules and definitions describing Sanskrit grammar in his treatise called Asthadhyayi. Basic elements such as vowels and consonants, parts of speech such as nouns and verbs were placed in classes. The construction of compound words and sentences was elaborated through ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to formal language theory.

Today, Panini's constructions can also be seen as comparable to modern definitions of a mathematical function. G G Joseph, in The crest of the peacock argues that the algebraic nature of Indian mathematics arises as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit language. Ingerman in his paper titled Panini-Backus form finds Panini's notation to be equivalent in its power to that of Backus - inventor of the Backus Normal Form used to describe the syntax of modern computer languages. Thus Panini's work provided an example of a scientific notational model that could have propelled later mathematicians to use abstract notations in characterizing algebraic equations and presenting algebraic theorems and results in a scientific format.

Philosophy and Mathematics

Philosophical doctrines also had a profound influence on the development of mathematical concepts and formulations. Like the Upanishadic world view, space and time were considered limitless in Jain cosmology. This led to a deep interest in very large numbers and definitions of infinite numbers. Infinite numbers were created through recursive formulae, as in the Anuyoga Dwara Sutra. Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities: infinite in one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere and perpetually infinite. Permutations and combinations are listed in the Bhagvati Sutras (3rd C BC) and Sathananga Sutra (2nd C BC).

Jain set theory probably arose in parallel with the Syadvada system of Jain epistemology in which reality was described in terms of pairs of truth conditions and state changes. The Anuyoga Dwara Sutra demonstrates an understanding of the law of indeces and uses it to develop the notion of logarithms. Terms like Ardh Aached , Trik Aached, and Chatur Aached are used to denote log base 2, log base 3 and log base 4 respectively. In Satkhandagama various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by squaring and extracting square roots, and by raising to finite or infinite powers. The operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial expansion is noted.

Since Jain epistemology allowed for a degree of indeterminacy in describing reality, it probably helped in grappling with indeterminate equations and finding numerical approximations to irrational numbers.

Buddhist literature also demonstrates an awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers. Buddhist mathematics was classified either as Garna (Simple Mathematics) or Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). Numbers were deemed to be of three types: Sankheya (countable), Asankheya (uncountable) and Anant (infinite).

Philosophical formulations concerning Shunya - i.e. emptiness or the void may have facilitated in the introduction of the concept of zero. While the zero (bindu) as an empty place holder in the place-value numeral system appears much earlier, algebraic definitions of the zero and it's relationship to mathematical functions appear in the mathematical treatises of Brahmagupta in the 7th C AD. Although scholars are divided about how early the symbol for zero came to be used in numeric notation in India, (Ifrah arguing that the use of zero is already implied in Aryabhatta) tangible evidence for the use of the zero begins to proliferate towards the end of the Gupta period. Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.

The Indian Numeral System

Although the Chinese were also using a decimal based counting system, the Chinese lacked a formal notational system that had the abstraction and elegance of the Indian notational system, and it was the Indian notational system that reached the Western world through the Arabs and has now been accepted as universal. Several factors contributed to this development whose significance is perhaps best stated by French mathematician, Laplace: "The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. It's simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions."

Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In the Western world, the cumbersome roman numeral system posed as a major obstacle, and in China the pictorial script posed as a hindrance. But in India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.

Influence of Trade and Commerce, Importance of Astronomy

The growth of trade and commerce, particularly lending and borrowing demanded an understanding of both simple and compound interest which probably stimulated the interest in arithmetic and geometric series. Brahmagupta's description of negative numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes points to a link between trade and mathematical study. Knowledge of astronomy - particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars was of great import to trading communities who crossed oceans or deserts at night. This is borne out by numerous references in the Jataka tales and several other folk-tales. The young person who wished to embark on a commercial venture was inevitably required to first gain some grounding in astronomy. This led to a proliferation of teachers of astronomy, who in turn received training at universities such as at Kusumpura (Bihar) or Ujjain (Central India) or at smaller local colleges or Gurukuls. This also led to the exchange of texts on astronomy and mathematics amongst scholars and the transmission of knowledge from one part of India to another. Virtually every Indian state produced great mathematicians who wrote commentaries on the works of other mathematicians (who may have lived and worked in a different part of India many centuries earlier). Sanskrit served as the common medium of scientific communication.

The science of astronomy was also spurred by the need to have accurate calendars and a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choice of crops. At the same time, religion and astrology also played a role in creating an interest in astronomy and a negative fallout of this irrational influence was the rejection of scientific theories that were far ahead of their time. One of the greatest scientists of the Gupta period - Aryabhatta (born in 476 AD, Kusumpura, Bihar) provided a systematic treatment of the position of the planets in space. He correctly posited the axial rotation of the earth, and inferred correctly that the orbits of the planets were ellipses. He also correctly deduced that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight and provided a valid explanation for the solar and lunar eclipses rejecting the superstitions and mythical belief systems surrounding the phenomenon. Although Bhaskar I (born Saurashtra, 6th C, and follower of the Asmaka school of science, Nizamabad, Andhra ) recognized his genius and the tremendous value of his scientific contributions, some later astronomers continued to believe in a static earth and rejected his rational explanations of the eclipses. But in spite of such setbacks, Aryabhatta had a profound influence on the astronomers and mathematicians who followed him, particularly on those from the Asmaka school.

Mathematics played a vital role in Aryabhatta's revolutionary understanding of the solar system. His calculations on pi, the circumferance of the earth (62832 miles) and the length of the solar year (within about 13 minutes of the modern calculation) were remarkably close approximations. In making such calculations, Aryabhatta had to solve several mathematical problems that had not been addressed before including problems in algebra (beej-ganit) and trigonometry (trikonmiti).

Bhaskar I continued where Aryabhatta left off, and discussed in further detail topics such as the longitudes of the planets; conjunctions of the planets with each other and with bright stars; risings and settings of the planets; and the lunar crescent. Again, these studies required still more advanced mathematics and Bhaskar I expanded on the trigonometric equations provided by Aryabhatta, and like Aryabhatta correctly assessed pi to be an irrational number. Amongst his most important contributions was his formula for calculating the sine function which was 99% accurate. He also did pioneering work on indeterminate equations and considered for the first time quadrilaterals with all the four sides unequal and none of the opposite sides parallel.

Another important astronomer/mathematician was Varahamira (6th C, Ujjain) who compiled previously written texts on astronomy and made important additions to Aryabhatta's trigonometric formulas. His works on permutations and combinations complemented what had been previously achieved by Jain mathematicians and provided a method of calculation of nCr that closely resembles the much more recent Pascal's Triangle. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta did important work in enumerating the basic principles of algebra. In addition to listing the algebraic properties of zero, he also listed the algebraic properties of negative numbers. His work on solutions to quadratic indeterminate equations anticipated the work of Euler and Lagrange.

Emergence of Calculus

In the course of developing a precise mapping of the lunar eclipse, Aryabhatta was obliged to introduce the concept of infinitesimals - i.e. tatkalika gati to designate the infinitesimal, or near instantaneous motion of the moon, and express it in the form of a basic differential equation. Aryabhatta's equations were elaborated on by Manjula (10th C) and Bhaskaracharya (12th C) who derived the differential of the sine function. Later mathematicians used their intuitive understanding of integration in deriving the areas of curved surfaces and the volumes enclosed by them.

Applied Mathematics, Solutions to Practical Problems

Developments also took place in applied mathematics such as in creation of trigonometric tables and measurement units. Yativrsabha's work Tiloyapannatti (6th C) gives various units for measuring distances and time and also describes the system of infinite time measures.

In the 9th C, Mahaviracharya ( Mysore) wrote Ganit Saar Sangraha where he described the currently used method of calculating the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers. He also derived formulae to calculate the area of an ellipse and a quadrilateral inscribed within a circle (something that had also been looked at by Brahmagupta) The solution of indeterminate equations also drew considerable interest in the 9th century, and several mathematicians contributed approximations and solutions to different types of indeterminate equations.

In the late 9th C, Sridhara (probably Bengal) provided mathematical formulae for a variety of practical problems involving ratios, barter, simple interest, mixtures, purchase and sale, rates of travel, wages, and filling of cisterns. Some of these examples involved fairly complicated solutions and his Patiganita is considered an advanced mathematical work. Sections of the book were also devoted to arithmetic and geometric progressions, including progressions with fractional numbers or terms, and formulas for the sum of certain finite series are provided. Mathematical investigation continued into the 10th C. Vijayanandi (of Benares, whose Karanatilaka was translated by Al-Beruni into Arabic) and Sripati of Maharashtra are amongst the prominent mathematicians of the century.

The leading light of 12th C Indian mathematics was Bhaskaracharya who came from a long-line of mathematicians and was head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain. He left several important mathematical texts including the Lilavati and Bijaganita and the Siddhanta Shiromani, an astronomical text. He was the first to recognize that certain types of quadratic equations could have two solutions. His Chakrawaat method of solving indeterminate solutions preceded European solutions by several centuries, and in his Siddhanta Shiromani he postulated that the earth had a gravitational force, and broached the fields of infinitesimal calculation and integration. In the second part of this treatise, there are several chapters relating to the study of the sphere and it's properties and applications to geography, planetary mean motion, eccentric epicyclical model of the planets, first visibilities of the planets, the seasons, the lunar crescent etc. He also discussed astronomical instruments and spherical trigonometry. Of particular interest are his trigonometric equations: sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b; sin(a - b) = sin a cos b - cos a sin b;

The Spread of Indian Mathematics

The study of mathematics appears to slow down after the onslaught of the Islamic invasions and the conversion of colleges and universities to madrasahs. But this was also the time when Indian mathematical texts were increasingly being translated into Arabic and Persian. Although Arab scholars relied on a variety of sources including Babylonian, Syriac, Greek and some Chinese texts, Indian mathematical texts played a particularly important role. Scholars such as Ibn Tariq and Al-Fazari (8th C, Baghdad), Al-Kindi (9th C, Basra), Al-Khwarizmi (9th C. Khiva), Al-Qayarawani (9th C, Maghreb, author of Kitab fi al-hisab al-hindi), Al-Uqlidisi (10th C, Damascus, author of The book of Chapters in Indian Arithmetic), Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn al-Samh (Granada, 11th C, Spain), Al-Nasawi (Khurasan, 11th C, Persia), Al-Beruni (11th C, born Khiva, died Afghanistan), Al-Razi (Teheran), and Ibn-Al-Saffar (11th C, Cordoba) were amongst the many who based their own scientific texts on translations of Indian treatises. Records of the Indian origin of many proofs, concepts and formulations were obscured in the later centuries, but the enormous contributions of Indian mathematics was generously acknowledged by several important Arabic and Persian scholars, especially in Spain. Abbasid scholar Al-Gaheth wrote: " India is the source of knowledge, thought and insight”. Al-Maoudi (956 AD) who travelled in Western India also wrote about the greatness of Indian science. Said Al-Andalusi, an 11th C Spanish scholar and court historian was amongst the most enthusiastic in his praise of Indian civilization, and specially remarked on Indian achievements in the sciences and in mathematics. Of course, eventually, Indian algebra and trigonometry reached Europe through a cycle of translations, traveling from the Arab world to Spain and Sicily, and eventually penetrating all of Europe. At the same time, Arabic and Persian translations of Greek and Egyptian scientific texts become more readily available in India.

The Kerala School

Although it appears that original work in mathematics ceased in much of Northern India after the Islamic conquests, Benaras survived as a center for mathematical study, and an important school of mathematics blossomed in Kerala. Madhava (14th C, Kochi) made important mathematical discoveries that would not be identified by European mathematicians till at least two centuries later. His series expansion of the cos and sine functions anticipated Newton by almost three centuries. Historians of mathematics, Rajagopal, Rangachari and Joseph considered his contributions instrumental in taking mathematics to the next stage, that of modern classical analysis. Nilkantha (15th C, Tirur, Kerala) extended and elaborated upon the results of Madhava while Jyesthadeva (16th C, Kerala) provided detailed proofs of the theorems and derivations of the rules contained in the works of Madhava and Nilkantha. It is also notable that Jyesthadeva's Yuktibhasa which contained commentaries on Nilkantha's Tantrasamgraha included elaborations on planetary theory later adopted by Tycho Brahe, and mathematics that anticipated work by later Europeans. Chitrabhanu (16th C, Kerala) gave integer solutions to twenty-one types of systems of two algebraic equations, using both algebraic and geometric methods in developing his results. Important discoveries by the Kerala mathematicians included the Newton-Gauss interpolation formula, the formula for the sum of an infinite series, and a series notation for pi. Charles Whish (1835, published in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland) was one of the first Westerners to recognize that the Kerala school had anticipated by almost 300 years many European developments in the field.

Yet, few modern compendiums on the history of mathematics have paid adequate attention to the often pioneering and revolutionary contributions of Indian mathematicians. But as this essay amply demonstrates, a significant body of mathematical works were produced in the Indian subcontinent. The science of mathematics played a pivotal role not only in the industrial revolution but in the scientific developments that have occurred since. No other branch of science is complete without mathematics. Not only did India provide the financial capital for the industrial revolution (see the essay on colonization) India also provided vital elements of the scientific foundation without which humanity could not have entered this modern age of science and high technology.

Notes:

Mathematics and Music: Pingala (3rd C AD), author of Chandasutra explored the relationship between combinatorics and musical theory anticipating Mersenne (1588-1648) author of a classic on musical theory.

Mathematics and Architecture: Interest in arithmetic and geometric series may have also been stimulated by (and influenced) Indian architectural designs - (as in temple shikaras, gopurams and corbelled temple ceilings). Of course, the relationship between geometry and architectural decoration was developed to it's greatest heights by Central Asian, Persian, Turkish, Arab and Indian architects in a variety of monuments commissioned by the Islamic rulers.

Transmission of the Indian Numeral System: Evidence for the transmission of the Indian Numeral System to the West is provided by Joseph (Crest of the Peacock):-

*

Quotes Severus Sebokht (662) in a Syriac text describing the "subtle discoveries" of Indian astronomers as being "more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians" and "their valuable methods of computation which surpass description" and then goes on to mention the use of nine numerals.
*

Quotes from Liber abaci (Book of the Abacus) by Fibonacci (1170-1250): The nine Indian numerals are ...with these nine and with the sign 0 which in Arabic is sifr, any desired number can be written. (Fibonaci learnt about Indian numerals from his Arab teachers in North Africa)

Influence of the Kerala School: Joseph (Crest of the Peacock) suggests that Indian mathematical manuscripts may have been brought to Europe by Jesuit priests such as Matteo Ricci who spent two years in Kochi (Cochin) after being ordained in Goa in 1580. Kochi is only 70km from Thrissur (Trichur) which was then the largest repository of astronomical documents. Whish and Hyne - two European mathematicians obtained their copies of works by the Kerala mathematicians from Thrissur, and it is not inconceivable that Jesuit monks may have also taken copies to Pisa (where Galileo, Cavalieri and Wallis spent time), or Padau (where James Gregory studied) or Paris (where Mersenne who was in touch with Fermat and Pascal, acted as an agent for the transmission of mathematical ideas).

References:

1.Studies in the History of Science in India (Anthology edited by Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya)
2.A P Juskevic, S S Demidov, F A Medvedev and E I Slavutin: Studies in the history of mathematics, "Nauka" (Moscow, 1974), 220-222; 302.

3. B Datta: The science of the Sulba (Calcutta, 1932).

4.G G Joseph: The crest of the peacock (Princeton University Press, 2000).

5. R P Kulkarni: The value of pi known to Sulbasutrakaras, Indian Journal Hist. Sci. 13 (1) (1978), 32-41.

6. G Kumari: Some significant results of algebra of pre-Aryabhata era, Math. Ed. (Siwan) 14 (1) (1980), B5-B13.

7. G Ifrah: A universal history of numbers: From prehistory to the invention of the computer (London, 1998).

8. P Z Ingerman: 'Panini-Backus form', Communications of the ACM 10 (3)(1967), 137.
9.P Jha, Contributions of the Jainas to astronomy and mathematics, Math. Ed. (Siwan) 18 (3) (1984), 98-107.

9b. R C Gupta: The first unenumerable number in Jaina mathematics, Ganita Bharati 14 (1-4) (1992), 11-24.

10. L C Jain: System theory in Jaina school of mathematics, Indian J. Hist. Sci. 14 (1) (1979), 31-65.

11. L C Jain and Km Meena Jain: System theory in Jaina school of mathematics. II, Indian J. Hist. Sci. 24 (3) (1989), 163-180

12. K Shankar Shukla: Bhaskara I, Bhaskara I and his works II. Maha-Bhaskariya (Sanskrit) (Lucknow, 1960).

13. K Shankar Shukla: Bhaskara I, Bhaskara I and his works III. Laghu-Bhaskariya (Sanskrit) (Lucknow, 1963).

14. K S Shukla: Hindu mathematics in the seventh century as found in Bhaskara I's commentary on the Aryabhatiya, Ganita 22 (1) (1971), 115-130.

15. R C Gupta: Varahamihira's calculation of nCr and the discovery of Pascal's triangle, Ganita Bharati 14 (1-4) (1992), 45-49.

16. B Datta: On Mahavira's solution of rational triangles and quadrilaterals, Bull. Calcutta Math. Soc. 20 (1932), 267-294.

17. B S Jain: On the Ganita-Sara-Samgraha of Mahavira (c. 850 A.D.), Indian J. Hist. Sci. 12 (1) (1977), 17-32.

18. K Shankar Shukla: The Patiganita of Sridharacarya (Lucknow, 1959).

19. H. Suter: Mathematiker

20. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber

21. Die philosophischen Abhandlungen des al-Kindi, Munster, 1897

22. K V Sarma: A History of the Kerala School of Hindu Astronomy (Hoshiarpur, 1972).

23. R C Gupta: The Madhava-Gregory series, Math. Education 7 (1973), B67-B70

24. S Parameswaran: Madhavan, the father of analysis, Ganita-Bharati 18 (1-4) (1996), 67-70.

25. K V Sarma, and S Hariharan: Yuktibhasa of Jyesthadeva : a book of rationales in Indian mathematics and astronomy - an analytical appraisal, Indian J. Hist. Sci. 26 (2) (1991), 185-207

26. C T Rajagopal and M S Rangachari: On an untapped source of medieval Keralese mathematics, Arch. History Exact Sci. 18 (1978), 89-102.

27. C T Rajagopal and M S Rangachari: On medieval Keralese mathematics, Arch. History Exact Sci. 35 (1986), 91-99.

28. A.K. Bag: Mathematics in Ancient and Medieval India (1979, Varanasi)

29. Bose, Sen, Subarayappa: Concise History of Science in India, (Indian National Science Academy)

30. T.A. Saraswati: Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India (1979, Delhi)

31.N. Singh: Foundations of Logic in Ancient India, Linguistics and Mathematics ( Science and technology in Indian Culture, ed. A Rahman, 1984, New Delhi, National Instt. of Science, Technology and Development Studies, NISTAD)

32. P. Singh: "The so-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India, (Historia Mathematica, 12, 229-44, 1985)

33. Chin Keh-Mu: India and China: Scientific Exchange (History of Science in India Vol 2.)

Another view on Indian Mathematics:

Indic Mathematics: India and the Scientific Revolution
Dr. David Gray writes:

"The study of mathematics in the West has long been characterized by a certain ethnocentric bias, a bias which most often manifests not in explicit racism, but in a tendency toward undermining or eliding the real contributions made by non-Western civilizations. The debt owed by the West to other civilizations, and to India in particular, go back to the earliest epoch of the "Western" scientific tradition, the age of the classical Greeks, and continued up until the dawn of the modern era, the renaissance, when Europe was awakening from its dark ages."

Dr Gray goes on to list some of the most important developments in the history of mathematics that took place in India, summarizing the contributions of luminaries such as Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Mahavira, Bhaskara and Maadhava. He concludes by asserting that "the role played by India in the development (of the scientific revolution in Europe) is no mere footnote, easily and inconsequentially swept under the rug of Eurocentric bias. To do so is to distort history, and to deny India one of its greatest contributions to world civilization."

Indic Mathematics

Related Essays:

Development of Philosophical Thought and Scientific Method in Ancient India

Philosophical Development from Upanishadic Theism to Scientific Realism

History of the Physical Sciences in India

Technological discoveries and applications in India

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Development of Philosophical Thought and Scientific Method in Ancient India

Technological discoveries and applications in India

The earliest evidence of technological progress in the Indian subcontinent is to be found in the remains of the Harappan civilization (4000-3000 BC). Archaeological remains point to the existence of well-planned urban centres that boasted of private and public dwellings laid out in orderly fashion along with roads and drainage systems complementing them. The drainage systems were particularly remarkable for the times since they were built underground and were constructed in a manner to allow for regular cleaning. Smaller drains from private homes connected to the larger public drains.

Larger private dwellings were invariably multi-storied and all homes were constructed from standardized fired bricks and provided for separate cooking areas and toilets. Storage facilities for grain and goods for trade were built as were public baths and other buildings intended for various public functions.
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Philosophical Development from Upanishadic Metaphysics to Scientific Realism

Upanishadic philosophy: preparing the ground for rationalism

Although the Upanishadic texts (like some of the earlier Vedic texts) are primarily concerned with acquiring knowledge of the "soul", "spirit" and "god" - there are aspects of Vedic and Upanishadic literature that also point to an intuitive understanding of nature and natural processes. In addition, many of the ideas are presented in a philosophical and exploratory manner - rather than as strict definitions of inviolable truth.

Although the Upanishadic texts goaded the Upanishadic student to concentrate on comprehending the inner spirit, rational investigation of the world by other scholars was not entirely squelched, and eventually, the Upanishadic period gave way to an era which was not inimical to the development of rational ideas, even encouraging scientific observation and advanced study in the fields of logic, mathematics and the physical sciences.
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Development of Philosophical Thought and Scientific Method in Ancient India

Contrary to the popular perception that Indian civilization has been largely concerned with the affairs of the spirit and "after-life", India's historical record suggests that some of the greatest Indian minds were much more concerned with developing philosophical paradigms that were grounded in reality. The premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.

Much of the evidence for how India's ancient logicians and scientists developed their theories lies buried in polemical texts that are not normally thought of as scientific texts. While some of the treatises on mathematics, logic, grammar, and medicine have survived as such - many philosophical texts enunciating a rational and scientific world view can only be constructed from extended references found in philosophical texts and commentaries by Buddhist and Jain monks or Hindu scholars (usually Brahmins).
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SOUTH ASIAN HISTORY

Pages from the history of the Indian sub-continent: Realism, Skepticism, Rational Thinking, Scientific Progress and Social Ethics

Development of Philosophical Thought and Scientific Method in Ancient India

Contrary to the popular perception that Indian civilization has been largely concerned with the affairs of the spirit and "after-life", India's historical record suggests that some of the greatest Indian minds were much more concerned with developing philosophical paradigms that were grounded in reality. The premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.

Much of the evidence for how India's ancient logicians and scientists developed their theories lies buried in polemical texts that are not normally thought of as scientific texts. While some of the treatises on mathematics, logic, grammar, and medicine have survived as such - many philosophical texts enunciating a rational and scientific world view can only be constructed from extended references found in philosophical texts and commentaries by Buddhist and Jain monks or Hindu scholars (usually Brahmins).

Although these documents are usually considered to lie within the domain of religious studies, it should be pointed out that many of these are in the form of extended polemics that are quite unlike the holy books of Christianity or Islam. These texts attempt to debate the value of the real-world versus the spiritual-world. They attempt to counter the theories of the atheists and other skeptics. But in their attempts to prove the primacy of a mystical soul or "Atman" - they often go to great lengths in describing competing rationalist and worldly philosophies rooted in a more realistic and more scientific perception of the world. Their extensive commentaries illustrate the popular methods of debate, of developing a hypothesis, of extending and elaborating theory, of furnishing proofs and counter-proofs.

It is also important to note that originally, the Buddhist world view was an essentially atheistic world view. The ancient Jains were agnostics, and within the broad stream of Hinduism - there were several heterodox currents that asserted a predominantly atheistic view. In that sense, these were not religions as we think of today since the modern understanding of religion presumes faith or belief in a super-natural entity.

That so many scholars from each of these philosophical schools felt the imperative to prove their extra-worldly theories using rationalist tools of deductive and inductive logic suggests that faith in a super-natural being could not have been taken for granted. This is borne out by the memoirs of Hieun Tsang (the Chinese chronicler who traveled extensively in India during the 7th C. AD) who describes the merchants of Benaras as being mostly "unbelievers"! He also wrote of intense polemics and debates amongst followers of different Buddhist sects.

Similiarly, there is other evidence that suggests that amongst the intellectuals of ancient India, atheism and skepticism must have been very powerful currents that required repeated and vigorous attempts at persuasion and change. Nevertheless, over centuries, the intellectual discords between the believers and non-believers became more and more muted. The advocates of mystic idealism prevailed over the skeptics, so that eventually, (at the popular level) each of these philosophies functioned as traditional religions with their pantheon of gods and goddesses enticing and lulling most into an intellectual stupor. But at no point were the advocates of "pure faith" ever powerful enough to completely extinguish the rationalist current that had so imbued Indian philosophy.

Early Rationalist Schools
One of the most ancient of India's rationalist traditions is the "Lokayata". Maligned and discredited by the evangelicals of mystical Buddhism and Vedantic Hinduism, their world view was sharply atheistic and scientific for their time. Unlike those who believed in reincarnation or an after-life, and in the indestructibility of the human soul - they refused to make artificial distinctions between body and mind. They saw the human mind as part and parcel of the human body - not as some separate entity that could have an independent existence from the human body. They acknowledged nothing but the material human body and the material universe around it. They rejected sacrificial gifts and offerings for the after-life as was common amongst followers of Brahmanical Hinduism during the time of Medhatithi in A.D 900 (a commentator on the writings of Manu who acknowledges that the Lokayatas were atheists or non-believers.)

For instance, they ridiculed the Brahmanical rituals of animal sacrifice: "If a beast slain in the Jyotistoma rite itself goes to heaven, Why then does not the sacrificer also offer his father?"

"If beings in heaven are gratified by our offerings made here, Then why not give the food down below to those who stand on the housetop?"

"If offerings produce gratification to beings who are dead, why make provisions for travellers when they start on a journey?"

"If he who departs from the body goes to another world, How is it that he comes not back again, restless for love of his kindred?"

The Lokayatas dismissed the Vedic priests and their Vedic mantras as nothing but a means of livelihood for those lacking in genuine physical or mental abilities. Instead, they gave primacy to human sense-perception, and through the application of the inferential process - they developed their theories of how the world worked.

One of the most notable aspects of the Lokayata belief system was their intuitive understanding of dialectics in nature. Many argued the mind-body separation as follows: Since the body is made up of things lacking consciousness - but the mind is a conscious entity - mind and body must necessarily be different - and consciousness must imply the existence of something else akin to the "soul". The Lokayatas countered this by citing the example of fermentation - how an intoxicating drink could be produced from something that was not itself an intoxicant. In essence they had discovered the principle that the whole was greater than the sum of it's parts. That physical and chemical processes could lead to dramatic changes in the properties of the substances combined. They were able to understand how special transformations could produce new qualities that were not evident in the constituent elements of the newly-created entity.

As keen observers of nature, they were probably amongst the first to understand the nature of different plants and herbs and their utility to human well-being. As such, it is likely that Indian medicine gradually evolved from the early scientific knowledge and understanding of the Lokayatas. Since the Lokayatas believed that consciousness emerged from the living human body, and ended with it's death - it is more than likely that the widely prevalent Indian custom of cremating the dead also originated amongst them.

This is not to say that the Lokayatas' understanding of the world was as elaborate and precise as that provided by today's science. By the standards of the 20th century, some of their formulations could be considered primitive and inadequate. That is only to be expected. Knowledge of science has expanded considerably since their times. But what is more important is that their world view was driven by a rational and scientific approach.

For instance, some later philosophical schools countered the Lokayata arguments concerning mind-body unity by bringing up the evidence of memory. Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophers like Jayanta and Udayana pointed out that the process of daily eating meant that the human body was constantly changing. The process of ageing also pointed to how the human body was ever-changing. Yet, an old person could remember in detail an incident from childhood. In other words - they tried to argue that memory was evidence of a human soul that existed beyond the mere physical body. Yet, we know today that memory is but a combination of proteins that can survive the length of human existence. There is both continuity and change in nature. The Lokayata world view howsoever sketchy and incomplete was not in contradiction with modern science.

If some of their characterizations required later revisions or refinement, or even corrections, it didn't take away from their fundamentally scientific approach. Their inadequacies were a consequence of incomplete knowledge and the understandable inability to see all the complexities of nature that we are now able (through advanced scientific instruments and centuries of accumulated knowledge). Their errors did not, however, stem from stubborn faith or deliberate rejection of reality and real-world phenomenon.

In practice, (according to some historians) India's ancient Tantric followers may have also had a largely rational world view, which sprang from a practical mindset and was impaired only by the limited amount of scientific knowledge available to humanity at that time. Critics of the tantrics dismissed them as sexually obsessed hedonists. But they failed to acknowledge that the early tantrics had an intuitive scientific streak and their understanding of sexual reproduction is probably what may have also impelled them to develop basic agricultural tools and other implements. In that sense, they were India's early technologists.

The Age of Science and Reason
But even amongst those Indian philosophers who accepted the separation of mind and body and argued for the existence of the soul, there was considerable dedication to the scientific method and to developing the principles of deductive and inductive logic. From 1000 B.C to the 4th C A.D (also described as India's rationalistic period) treatises in astronomy, mathematics, logic, medicine and linguistics were produced. The philosophers of the Sankhya school, the Nyaya-Vaisesika schools and early Jain and Buddhist scholars made substantial contributions to the growth of science and learning. Advances in the applied sciences like metallurgy, textile production and dyeing were also made.

In particular, the rational period produced some of the most fascinating series of debates on what constitutes the "scientific method": How does one separate our sensory perceptions from dreams and hallucinations? When does an observation of reality become accepted as fact, and as scientific truth? How should the principles of inductive and deductive logic be developed and applied? How does one evaluate a hypothesis for it's scientific merit? What is a valid inference? What constitutes a scientific proof?

These and other questions were attacked with an unexpected intellectual vigour. As keen observers of nature and the human body, India's early scientist/philosophers studied human sensory organs, analyzed dreams, memory and consciousness. The best of them understood dialectics in nature - they understood change, both in quantitative and qualitative terms - they even posited a proto-type of the modern atomic theory. It was this rational foundation that led to the flowering of Indian civilization.

This is borne out by the testaments of important Greek scientists and philosophers of that period. Pythagoras - the Greek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the 6th C B.C was familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic geometry from the Sulva Sutras. (The famous Pythagoras theorem is actually a restatement of a result already known and recorded by earlier Indian mathematicians). Later, Herodotus (father of Greek history) was to write that the Indians were the greatest nation of the age. Megasthenes - who travelled extensively through India in the 4th C. B.C also left extensive accounts that paint India in highly favorable light (for that period).

Intellectual contacts between ancient Greece and India were not insignificant. Scientific exchanges between Greece and India were mutually beneficial and helped in the development of the sciences in both nations. By the 6th C. A.D, with the help of ancient Greek and Indian texts, and through their own ingenuity, Indian astronomers made significant discoveries about planetary motion. An Indian astronomer - Aryabhata, was to become the first to describe the earth as a sphere that rotated on it's own axis. He further postulated that it was the earth that rotated around the sun and correctly described how solar and lunar eclipses occurred.

Because astronomy required extremely complicated mathematical equations, ancient Indians also made significant advances in mathematics. Differential equations - the basis of modern calculus were in all likelihood an Indian invention (something essential in modeling planetary motions). Indian mathematicians were also the first to invent the concept of abstract infinite numbers - numbers that can only be represented through abstract mathematical formulations such as infinite series - geometric or arithmetic. They also seemed to be familiar with polynomial equations (again essential in advanced astronomy) and were the inventors of the modern numeral system (referred to as the Arabic numeral system in Europe).

The use of the decimal system and the concept of zero was essential in facilitating large astronomical calculation and allowed such 7th C mathematicians as Brahmagupta to estimate the earth's circumferance at about 23,000 miles - (not too far off from the current calculation). It also enabled Indian astronomers to provide fairly accurate longitudes of important places in India.

The science of Ayurveda - (the ancient Indian system of healing) blossomed in this period. Medical practitioners took up the dissection of corpses, practised surgery, developed popular nutritional guides, and wrote out codes for medical procedures and patient care and diagnosis. Chemical processes associated with the dying of textiles and extraction of metals were studied and documented. The use of mordants (in dyeing) and catalysts (in metal-extraction/purification) was discovered.

The scientific ethos also had it's impact on the arts and literature. Painting and sculpture flourished even as there were advances in social infrastructure. Universities were set up with dormitories and meeting halls. In addition, according to the Chinese traveller, Hieun Tsang, roads were built with well-marked signposts. Shade trees were planted. Inns and hospitals dotted national highways so as to facilitate travel and trade.

India's rational age was thus a period of tremendous intellectual ferment and vitality. It was a period of scientific discovery and technological innovation. Accompanied by challenges to caste discrimination and rigidity and religious obscurantism - it was also a period of great social upheaval that eventually led to society becoming more democratic, allowing greater social interaction between members of different castes and expanding opportunities for social mobility amongst the population. Social ethics drew considerable attention in this period. Rules of engagement during war were constructed so as to eliminate non-military casualties and destruction of pasture-land, crop-land or orchards. The notion of chivalry in war was popularized - it meant not attacking fleeing or injured soldiers. It also required warring armies to provide safe passage to women, children, the elderly and other non-combatants.

The rational period thus saw progress on several fronts. Not only did it create an enduring foundation for India's civilization to develop and mature - it has also had it's impact on the growth of other civilizations. In fact, India's rational period served as a vital link in the long and varied chain of human progress. Although colonial history has attempted to usurp this collective heritage of the planet and make it exclusively euro-centric, it is important to note that fundamental and important discoveries in science and innovations in technology have come from many different parts of the globe, albeit at different times and stages of world civilization. India made significant contributions in this regard. If India is to fully recover from the depredations of colonial rule, it is imperative that we don't forget the achievements of this inspiring epoch.

Note: References to Greece and India are used in a very broad way. In the ancient world, the 'Greek' world included most Mediterranean nations - including those of North Africa, Palestine, modern-day Turkey, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. References to India apply to the general expanse of the sub-continent.

For a somewhat more detailed outline of the different rational schools and their emergence in India, see Philosophical development from Upanishadic theism to scientific realism which outlines the epistemology of the Nyaya school, the Jain system of Syadavada, theories of causality and the atomic theories of Jain and Buddhist philosophers. Also see: Buddhist Ethics and Social Criticism

Other related essays:

History of Mathematics in India

Technological discoveries and applications in India

References:
K. Damodaran: Indian Thought, A Critical Survey

Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya: Lokayata: A study in Ancient Indian Materialism
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya: In Defence of Materialism in Ancient India
R. C. Dutt: A History of Civilization in Ancient India
Studies in the History of Science in India (Anthology edited by Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya)

Also see Dr David Gray on: Indic Mathematics

Alberuni on Indian Science: In his memoirs, Al-beruni of Khiva (10-11th C) cites Brahmagupta and Varahamira and their arguments concerning the earth being spherical and the attraction of objects on the earth towards it's centre. He also cites how the daily phases of the tides were calculated relative to the rising and the setting of the moon. He also left commentaries on Indian mathematics, philosophy and other aspects of Indian life.

See Vinod Kumar's India as Al-beruni saw it

On Eurocentricism in the History of Science: Gloria Emeagwali brings up how discoveries made outside the Western world have rarely been properly credited in the West. She points to how the national origin of ancient scholars of North African and Middle Eastern descent is not correctly acknowledged, adding that Africans and Middle Easterners made important contributions to developments in science and philosophy in the ancient 'Greek' world.

See Gloria Emeagwali's Eurocentricism and the History of Science and Technology

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Last updated: Aug 15, 2001

TRINIDAD HIT BY ETHNIC CLEANSING EPIDEMIC: 'being an Indian was part of the problem'; BIAS AGAINST INDIANS; Khan: I am a victim of discrimination; WAR

TRINIDAD HIT BY ETHNIC CLEANSING EPIDEMIC: 'being an Indian was part of the problem'; BIAS AGAINST INDIANS; Khan: I am a victim of discrimination; WARNER, IMBERT, MANNING SHOOT ETHNIC CLEANSING MESSENGER; Gopeesingh lists 13 doctors in ‘ethnic cleansing’; PUBLIC SERVANTS WIN IN APPEAL COURT, MANNING LOSES;


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PSC promotion judgment
Court rulings seen as signal against a trend
Shaliza Hassanali
Published: 19 Jul 2009


Acting Transport Commissioner, Pundit Haridath Maharaj, who won a historic victory over the Public Service Commission (PSC), feels that the judgments handed down sends a clear signal that Indian public servants are not wanted in the higher levels of the public service.

Maharaj was one of three people of East Indian descent, during the past week, who scored a historic victory over the PSC for failing to consider him for promotion to the office in which he had been acting for three years. Justice Maureen Rajnauth-Lee ruled on Friday that the commission erred when it ignored Maharaj’s claim to promotion and instead promoted his junior, Ruben Cato.

Rajnauth-Lee granted a declaration that the decision not to interview Maharaj for promotion to Transport Commissioner was unfair and irrational.
Maharaj’s judgment was the third in the past two weeks in which the court ruled that people had been unfairly treated by the PSC. Last week, the Court of Appeal ruled in favour of Ganga Persad Kissoon, who was bypassed for promotion for the post of Commissioner of State Lands, which Prime Minister Patrick Manning vetoed and blocked.

The Court of Appeal also ruled in favour of Feroza Ramjohn, whose recommendation to serve in the London High Commission was also vetoed by Manning. The three defendants were represented by attorney Anand Ramlogan.
“This trend is a very disturbing and dangerous one, which sends a clear signal that Indian public servants are not wanted in the higher levels of the public service. “There is a glass ceiling beyond which they are unable to rise,” said Maharaj—a public servant for 40 years.

Maharaj said he was victimised on the job for two-and-a-half years, for walking a straight line. “I felt that being an Indian was part of the problem…I am not against the person who was promoted; is just that I was angry with the system.” Because of mounting pressures, Maharaj said he felt like throwing in the towel. “This judgment can’t undo what I went through. I have to live with this for the rest of my life.”

Ramjohn said that for the five years the matter dragged on in court, her colleagues never had anything good to say: “Even after the judgment was handed down, only few of my colleagues congratulated me.” Ramjohn said she was trying to move on with her life, because the incident brought her no end of worry and stress. Kissoon said he was satisfied with the judgment, which should serve well for other public servants being overlooked for promotions. “No sitting Prime Minister should be allowed to manipulate the career of a public servant into high office,” Kissoon said.

Ramlogan: It’s an evil

Attorney Ramlogan said discrimination was a multifaceted evil that could occur for a variety of reasons: “The glaring racial imbalance in the upper echelons of the public service statistically supports and fuels this perception.”

Ramlogan said the system for acting appointments was also abused by putting someone to warm the seat without confirming them, while the favoured person was given time to qualify for the promotion. “The commission is supposed to be independent, but operates in a vacuum or ivory tower, as though it is unaware of the plight of those who complain about discrimination and unfair treatment. “It has done nothing to alter the racial composition of the interview panel,” said Ramlogan

What the people say

Former head of the Public Service, Reginald Dumas, hesitated to attribute race as the main reason for the objection to promote anyone. “What I found important in the court’s ruling is that you should not just veto people without reason. What the court is trying to say is that there has to be an emphasis on natural justice.” Vice-president of the Public Services Association Stephen Thomas, when contacted, said he had to peruse the judgment before commenting. However, Thomas said the commission “had made this blunder several times.”

http://guardian.co.tt/news/general/2009/07/19/court-rulings-seen-signal-against-trend



BIAS AGAINST INDIANS
Dr Tim stands firm on 'ethnic cleansing' charge at hospital
Juhel Browne jbrowne@trinidadexpress.com
Sunday, July 19th 2009






'QUALIFIED DOCTORS LEAVING': Dr Tim Gopeesingh

Opposition MP Dr Tim Gopeesingh yesterday charged that Government was carrying out a policy of political discrimination that was targeting one particular ethnic grouping in T&T.

"I don't think the Prime Minister is a racist at all but he is practising inequality and massive discrimination," Gopeesingh said yesterday at a news conference at his St Clair office.

Gopeesingh said he has known Manning for the past 30 years and had gone to university with him and believed the Prime Minister's "best friends are East Indians".

But he said, "What you practice as a political leader and a Prime Minister may be not the way you behave personally as an individual."

Gopeesingh also said he was not going to apologise for the comments he made in Parliament on Friday about there being "ethnic cleansing", and that most of the Indian doctors have had to leave the Port of Spain General Hospital.

"I felt compelled to bring it in the debate in Parliament rather than hiding it because I would have been doing an injustice to the society, particularly when people's lives are at stake and when I see lives are being lost because of negligence and people being operated on by junior doctors who never should be practising in Trinidad and Tobago," Gopeesingh said.

He said those junior doctors were being given licences to practise by what he called the Government's forming of a parallel medical board, as opposed to the constitutionally appointed Medical Board.

The Government has maintained that all foreign doctors being allowed to practise in T&T are properly licensed and qualified to do their jobs.

Gopeesingh said highly qualified doctors of Indian descent from this country were being turned away from key jobs in the public health sector or were leaving out of frustration.

"This Government is guilty, and guilty of massive discrimination in the health sector," Gopeesingh said.

Leader of Opposition Business in the Senate Wade Mark, who joined Gopeesingh at yesterday's news conference, accused the Manning administration of "pursuing a practice of selective discrimination particularly as it relates to employment in the Public Service".

On Friday evening, as he responded to Gopeesingh's comments on ethnic cleansing, Manning said the Parliament was not the place for "that kind of talk" even if the Opposition MP had the evidence to prove his claim. He called for Gopeesingh to withdraw the remarks.

Gopeesingh said, "There is massive discrimination and inequality in the award of scholarships, in the award of housing, in the hiring practices throughout the country and it must be spoken about. We cannot sweep it under the carpet because to sweep it under the carpet would be doing a massive disservice to the national community and it must be brought (out) and Parliament is the place that it has to be discussed.

"We cannot discuss this outside. We are elected by the people and the people expect us to discuss this."

He provided a list of names of 14 senior doctors of Indian descent who he claimed have been forced to take VSEP, did not have their contracts renewed or who have been frustrated out of the public health system from 2008 to present.




http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_news?id=161506348





Public servants win in Appeal Court
Double blow for PM
Francis Joseph
Published: 10 Jul 2009
It was a double blow for Prime Minister Patrick Manning in the Court of Appeal yesterday as he lost two judicial review cases in which he had vetoed the appointments of two senior public servants to high-ranking positions in the Public Service.

Manning was also under pressure in the Senate yesterday as he tried to convince senators to support the bill for postponing local government elections for another 12 months. In one court case, Feroza Ramjohn was deemed a national security risk and her transfer to the Trinidad and Tobago High Commission in London was rescinded. In the other case, Ganga Persad Kissoon was the number one choice to become Commissioner of State Lands, but he was bypassed for promotion.

Former Justice David Myers dismissed Kissoon’s judicial review case, but yesterday, the Court of Appeal, comprising Chief Justice Ivor Archie, Justice Margot Warner and Justice Allan Mendonca, ruled for the public servant against the PM and the Public Service Commission (PSC). In both cases, Sir Fenton Ramsahoye, SC, and Anand Ramlogan appeared for the public servants, while Russell Martineau, SC, represented the State.

In Ramjohn’s case, Justice Amrika Tiwary-Reddy ruled for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs accountant, but the State appealed. Yesterday, the court of appeal, by a 2-1 majority, dismissed the State’s appeal but ordered that no damages be awarded to Ramjohn. Warner and Mendonca ruled for Ramjohn, while Justice Wendell Kangaloo dissented. The court granted a declaration to Ramjohn that she was treated unfairly, by the failure of the Prime Minister to inform her of the case against her, and to give her an opportunity to make representations.

Ramjohn, 58, has been a public servant for the past 38 years. During her career, she served two overseas missions—as officer in charge of the registry in the Consulate in New York, and as accounts officer in the permanent mission to the United Nations, also in New York. On May 11, 1999, two diplomatic pouches which were despatched from Port-of-Spain to New York went missing on BW 424. It was later discovered that one of the pouches was found in a container with fish. The second pouch contained 200 blank T&T passports.

On June 5, 2001, one of two pouches with T&T passports went missing. An intelligence report, bearing dates June 23 and 25, 2001, stated that an official of the permanent mission in New York gave information “which tends to show that Ms Feroza Ramjohn, of the Registry, Foreign Affairs office in Trinidad, may be involved in a major conspiracy to steal a diplomatic pouch containing 200 blank T&T passports.”

Ramjohn denied that she was part of any conspiracy to steal blank T&T passports. She said she had left NY consultate ten years before and had no allies there. No charge or disciplinary action was taken against anyone. After accountant Bissoon Boodhai was charged with others for conspiracy to traffic cocaine in diplomatic pouches, Ramjohn was informed that she was going to the London mission as accountant. She received a letter and instrument of appointment about her transfer, which was signed by the Prime Minister.

But a month later, Ramjohn was handed a letter rescinding her transfer to London. She was considered a national security risk, and her appointment was vetoed by the PM. She was not given an opportunity to be heard, or to make representations. She was not sent to London, and someone else, her junior, was allowed to go to the T&T High Commission. Warner, in her eight-page judgment, said Ramjohn had no right to be transferred to the High Commission in London. But Warner found that Ramjohn was treated unfairly by the failure of the PM to inform her of the case against her, and to give her an opportunity to make representations.

Ramjohn, 58, has been a public servant for the past 38 years. During her career, she served two overseas missions—as officer in charge of the registry in the Consulate in New York, and as accounts officer in the permanent mission to the United Nations, also in New York. On May 11, 1999, two diplomatic pouches which were despatched from Port-of-Spain to New York went missing on BW 424. It was later discovered that one of the pouches was found in a container with fish. The second pouch contained 200 blank T&T passports.

On June 5, 2001, one of two pouches with T&T passports went missing. An intelligence report, bearing dates June 23 and 25, 2001, stated that an official of the permanent mission in New York gave information “which tends to show that Ms Feroza Ramjohn, of the Registry, Foreign Affairs office in Trinidad, may be involved in a major conspiracy to steal a diplomatic pouch containing 200 blank T&T passports.” Ramjohn denied that she was part of any conspiracy to steal blank T&T passports. She said she had left NY consultate ten years before and had no allies there. No charge or disciplinary action was taken against anyone.

After accountant Bissoon Boodhai was charged with others for conspiracy to traffic cocaine in diplomatic pouches, Ramjohn was informed that she was going to the London mission as accountant. She received a letter and instrument of appointment about her transfer, which was signed by the Prime Minister.

But a month later, Ramjohn was handed a letter rescinding her transfer to London. She was considered a national security risk, and her appointment was vetoed by the PM. She was not given an opportunity to be heard, or to make representations. She was not sent to London, and someone else, her junior, was allowed to go to the T&T High Commission.

Warner, in her eight-page judgment, said Ramjohn had no right to be transferred to the High Commission in London. But Warner found that Ramjohn was treated unfairly by the failure of the PM to inform her of the case against her and to give her an opportunity to make representations. In the case of Kissoon, a public servant for 36 years, he was recommended by the Service Commissions Department for promotion to the post of Commissioner of State Lands.

But Manning, by letter dated November 10, 2004, informed the PSC that he did not support Kissoon’s proposed promotion. Another name was proposed and it was accepted. Kissoon, 58, then filed for judicial review, seeking among other things, that the constitutional veto vested in the PM, was unfairly and illegally exercised for an improper purpose.

RESPONSES

FEROZA RAMJOHN:

Ramjohn said she was elated at the court victory, but was sad that her father was not around to see the final result. She said he died last year, although he was not optimistic that she could succeed over the PM. She said although she still had two years to go before retirement, she was still looking forward to the London appointment. “It has been a very stressful time for me,” Ramjohn added. She still works in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Sunjet House, Port-of-Spain.

GANGA PERSAD KISSOON:

“This victory is not for me, but for the younger ones coming up,” Kissoon said. “I have lost eight years because of this matter, and I have only two years to go. Although it means little for me, I am happy that I was able to succeed, although I was not that optimistic.”




Messenger under heavy fire
Peter Balroop
Published: 19 Jul 2009
Peter Balroop
UNC-A Chaguanas West MP, Jack Warner, felt funny to be within earshot when his colleague, Caroni East MP, Dr Tim Gopeesingh, let the cat out of the bag that you needed a microscope to find a doctor who looked like he had East Indian roots at Port-of-Spain General Hospital. The PNM had put on Hitlerite clothes and conducted ethnic cleansing at the venerable health institution, Gopeesingh declared during Friday’s sitting of the Lower House.

He swore that now you could find only doctors of African descent pacing the wards there. It was uncomfortable stuff, Gopeesingh putting into words the images that have from 1845 lurked here just under the surface in Trinidad and Tobago, when the first East Indians came as indentured labourers, meeting freed African slaves and their descendants, You have to be a fortunate citizen of this country—lucky to a fault—to be without the sin of nurturing racism in your heart and soul. Now, Gopeesingh’s comments about ethnic cleansing at the Port-of-Spain institution came in the context of him listing a litany of woes in the health sector that were begging for attention, a sort of in-passing comment.

But his critics, in particular Prime Minister Patrick Manning and Leader of Government Business Colm Imbert, latched on to the remark like leeches. They pinned Gopeesingh to the cross, and declined to allow him to elaborate, during their contributions, on why he had made the observation that left them seething. The action took place during debate on legislation to establish an ambulance authority in T&T, in a bill piloted by Health Minister Jerry Narace. The bill was passed 26-7 late on Friday night in its own wave of controversy, with Warner and his fellow UNC-A dissident colleague, Mayaro MP, Winston “Gypsy” Peters, voting with the ruling PNM.

Swelling rapidly

Gopeesingh had made the point that the T&T population was swelling rapidly, there being 18,000 births annually, compared with 12,000 deaths, coupled with Prime Minister Patrick Manning’s open invitation to the OECS that they were welcome to flock to the land of milk and honey to take up residence, and voting rights.

Nevertheless, while the country was filthy rich, people had to wait in many cases for two days before they could be warded on a hospital bed. Patients with fractures must lie on their backs for months, before the requisite screws, plates or pins were available to mend their limbs, Gopeesingh accused. As for burn victims, crapaud smoke their pipe, Gopeesingh lamented, just before he observed that 150-plus senior doctors of East Indian descent had been forced out of the public health service during recent times, in what he could only conclude was ethnic cleansing.

Even Speaker Barendra Sinanan was not happy with Gopeesingh publicly going where few Trinis would dare to tread, counselling the Caroni East MP to return his focus to the bill. But the damage had already been done, with Manning himself taking the floor to chastise Gopeesingh for bringing race talk into the debate. Imbert was even more abrasive, questioning Gopeesingh’s academic as well as medical credentials.

Warner, the Fifa vice-president, is locked in a bitter feud with Opposition Leader Basdeo Panday, who counts Gopeesingh as one of his right-hand men. On Friday, Warner, the only man of thoroughly African descent in T&T who can be safely described as an honorary East Indian, took offence at Gopeesingh going down the ethnic cleansing road. He said the comments, which smacked of resorting to tribalism, embarrassed him. Warner, who boasts that Chaguanas West is the best-run constituency of the 41 in T&T, said it was up to MPs to set the pace and prevent any polarisation of society.

Riot squad

Later, Manning echoed the sentiments, even going further to label the messenger—Gopeesingh—as a guttersnipe. But the Sunday before, when the One Voice activists, led by Inshan Ishmael, spontaneously found themselves at his St Ann’s palace demanding better healthcare for nationals, Manning’s response was to call in the police riot squad. With the John Jeremie issue still hanging over his head, as well as the raging crime tsunami, Manning’s plate is full.

The pressure is building, and our Prime Minister might just do the unexpected—call a general election in October to defuse all the simmering tensions. He needs just 35 days’ notice, according to the Elections and Boundaries Commission. And between the expected passing of the 2009-2010 Budget, in early September, and the Commonwealth Heads meeting in late November, there is plenty of time.




Gopeesingh lists 13 doctors in ‘ethnic cleansing’
Shaliza Hassanali
Published: 19 Jul 2009
Shaliza Hassanali
Caroni East MP Dr Tim Gopeesingh is sticking to his claim that there is ethnic cleansing at Port-of-Spain General Hospital. To substantiate his claims, Gopeesingh produced the names of 13 doctors from various departments of the hospital who had been forced to take VSEP, have not had their contracts renewed, or were frustrated out of the system from 2008 to now. During a press conference yesterday in Woodbrook, Gopeesingh responded to statements by Prime Minister Patrick Manning, who stated that the doctor’s remarks in Parliament on Friday were expected from a “guttersnipe and not a parliamentarian.”

Gopeesingh said ethnic cleansing was being carried out among doctors at the hospital. Manning also called on Gopeesingh to withdraw his comment. Gopeesingh said however: “My comments reflect a valid complaint from various sectors of the medical fraternity who, through blatant intimidation and ongoing discrimination by the government, have chosen or been forced to remain quiet on the issue.”

Gopeesingh said institutionalised discrimination had a domino-effect on deteriorating health standards, to the point where lives and limbs were lost. Gopeesingh said he would make no apologies for his statements, since they were valid and worthy of national attention and parliamentary debate. He also pointed out that the issue he raised, as alleged by the PM, was not based on racial relations, but targeted one group of professionals based on a perception that the group was anti-PNM.

With 35 years of medical experience under his belt, Gopeesingh admitted that it was hard for him to vent this issue in public. “But I did so because I felt it was time that the public realised that the PNM is going down a dangerous road of subverting the constitutional rights and guarantees of equality of all citizens for its political purposes.”

List of doctors
• Dr Ajit Kuruvilla
• Dr Gordon Naraynsingh
• Dr Hemant Persad
• Dr John Woo
• Dr Mary Ahow
• Dr Steve Mahadeo
• Dr Robert Ramcharan
• Dr Shehenaz Mohammed
• Dr Kim Hosein
• Dr Robin Hosein
• Dr Godfrey Araujo
• Dr Lall Sawh
• Dr Hassan Khan



http://guardian.co.tt/news/general/2009/07/19/gopeesingh-lists-13-doctors-ethnic-cleansing







Khan: I am a victim of discrimination
Rhonda Krystal Rambally
Published: 19 Jul 2009

Dr Fuad Khan

Rhonda Krystal Rambally
Dr Fuad Khan says he is a victim of discrimination, and he believes “that racism may have had a part to play.” Khan claimed he was bypassed for a senior consultancy position last year for “a less experienced Nigerian doctor” who was working under a senior urologist.

He said that senior urologist and another East Indian doctor “were forced out of the hospital.” In a telephone interview yesterday, Khan said the post of consultant urologist was advertised by the North Central Regional Health Authority (NCRHA) around August, last year, and that he had applied. However, after being interviewed by the panel, he said: “I never heard anything after.”

Khan, who has been a senior consultant urologist for the last 16 years, said he met the requirements for the position, unlike the Nigerian surgeon, whose post-graduate degree was not in urology. He claimed that several doctors and members of staff at the hospital also informed him that ethnic cleansing was occurring in the medical field.

Khan said he was the one who had informed Opposition MP, Dr Tim Gopeesingh, of the issue of racism at Port-of-Spain General Hospital, and had asked him to raise the matter before Parliament. Dr Gopeesingh did so on Friday, and Prime Minster Patrick Manning and Works and Transport Minister Colm Imbert responded to Gopeesingh’s comment, saying his statements were irresponsible and could provoke racial hatred. Khan said, however:

“They know exactly what they are doing, and it has stung them on their faces. “There seems to be an attempt to frustrate the hiring of local doctors, so that they can control the foreign doctors who are on contract. “They are now making sure that they put us out of the system.” He called on the PNM administration to cease the racial attack on East Indians in the country. “I want the PNM to stop practising racism towards Indians. “I am really serious…I have been pushing for equality in this country, not only for Indians, but for all races.”

Specialists leaving

Khan also claimed that gynaecologists, opthalmologists and anaethesists have left. He even said one of the senior urologists was forced out without compensatory leave. Referring to the late Rosa Parks, who fought for the rights of blacks in the US, Khan said Gopeesingh was fighting for the rights of East Indians.

“Dr Tim is like Rosa Parks. He has begun a civil rights movement for equality of Indian people in T&T.” Khan also said he “found out” that the scholarships offered to nationals to pursue medicine in Grenada were “given to 90 per cent of Africans and ten per cent to East Indians.” Apart from education, he said the intake in the Public Service and the distribution of houses by the government were all part of the ethnic cleansing.

He is calling for a full-scale investigation into the NCRHA, and said he had applied for documents from the Freedom of Information Act, through his attorney Anand Ramlogan. “I am backing Dr Gopeesingh 100 per cent, because of what happened to me.” He said according to Section 4 of the T&T Constitution, no national should be treated unfairly by a public authority or body. “If I have to seek judicial review, I will do that.” Efforts to reach Health Minister Jerry Narace proved futile.
http://guardian.co.tt/news/general/2009/07/19/khan-i-am-victim-discrimination



Jack hits back at UNC colleague
Gopeesingh: Ethnic cleansing among doctors at PoS hospital
Juhel Browne jbrowne@trinidadexpress.com
Saturday, July 18th 2009

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Opposition MP Jack Warner yesterday expressed complete disagreement with comments made by fellow Opposition MP Dr Tim Gopeesingh that, according to information he received, there was ethnic cleansing being carried out among doctors at the Port of Spain General Hospital.

"I am in a political party where I meet this every day. Far too often, far too often, where I go, some of us resort to tribalism in the worst possible way and I don't want to be part of that, Mr Speaker, and, therefore, for the records, I want to say that I resent very much this thing about ethnic cleansing," Warner said at yesterday's Parliament sitting.

Warner, who is co-leading a faction for change in the Opposition party along with Opposition MP Ramesh Lawrence Maharaj, did so just one week after he voted in favour of the Government's Securities Bill 2009 during the House of Representatives sitting on July 10.

As his comments were immediately accompanied by desk-thumping from Government MPs, Warner quipped, "You all clapping the table, if you feel you getting me expelled, I have news for you, you know."

Warner spoke out against Gopeesingh's comment less than an hour after Works and Transport Minister Colm Imbert said there was no "ethnic cleansing" occurring at the Port of Spain General Hospital. Describing Gopeesingh's comments as scandalous, Imbert said, "I consider it highly irresponsible in the extreme for a member of Parliament to utter these entirely racist statements."

Imbert said Gopeesingh, as a former chief executive officer of a regional health authority, should know that "the majority of doctors in the public health sector in this country are of East Indian descent".

Gopeepsingh said he was told that ethnic cleansing was occurring at the public health institution in the capital city, during his contribution to the debate on the Emergency Ambulance Services and Emergency Medical Personnel Bill, 2009.

But Warner said members of Parliament "must at all times try to avoid further polarising this society" and just because someone claims there is ethnic cleansing going on in a public health institution, they should not necessarily have to repeat it.

Social Development Minister Dr Amery Browne endorsed Warner's comments when he contributed to the debate, and called on Gopeesingh to apologise for his remarks and withdraw them.

http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_news?id=161506008



‘Ethnic cleansing’ at PoS hospital—Dr Tim
Richard Lord
Published: 18 Jul 2009
Richard Lord
Opposition MP Dr Tim Gopeesingh claims there is ethnic cleansing at Port-of-Spain General Hospital, an allegation which Prime Minister Patrick Manning and Works and Transport Minister Colm Imbert described as irresponsible in the extreme.

Manning’s comment was made while he was on his seat in the House of Representatives during yesterday’s debate on a bill to establish, among other things, an Ambulance Authority in T&T. The legislation was presented for debate by Health Minister Jerry Narace. But it was during the contribution of Gopeesingh that the claim of racism at the hospital surfaced. “There has been an issue of ethnic cleansing at Port-of-Spain General Hospital as far as the doctors are concerned,” Gopeesingh said. “I understand that most of the East Indian doctors have had to leave Port-of-Spain hospital. I understand the Port-of-Spain (General) hospital is a virtual African hospital now.”

Panday, who was seated in the Chamber, was heard saying in support, “racism.” Gopeesingh said he was told of these developments but was not aware if they were true. Minutes later, he said they were facts. Gopeesingh said there were more than 150 senior doctors in T&T of East Indian descent and “they have been forced out of the service. There is a collaboration between the Medical Chief of Staff and the administrator at the Port-of-Spain hospital, dealing with this situation.” At this point, Speaker Barendra Sinanan intervened, saying that the issue was the subject of another proceeding but not the bill being debated. Later in his contribution, Leader of Government Business Colm Imbert accused Gopeesingh of uttering the “racist statements that could provoke racial hatred.” “Mr Speaker, without a shred of evidence... irresponsible in the extreme,” Imbert said.

Imbert said the vast majority of medical practitioners in the Public Service were East Indians so it was not possible for there to be a majority of African doctors at any public health institutions in T&T. “It is a fact that the majority of doctors in this country are of East Indian descent,” Imbert stressed. He said 80 per cent of the graduates of the faculty of medicine at the University of the West Indies were of East Indian descent. “I can say without any fear of contradiction that the majority of doctors in every hospital in the public health service, with the possible exception of Tobago, are of East Indian descent,” Imbert said. He said he could not stand in the Parliament and allow Gopeesingh to “utter falsehoods and promote racial hatred in this country.” Imbert said Gopeesingh’s claims were “wholly irrelevant, baseless, unfounded, frivolous and vexatious.” He demanded that Gopeesingh prove his claim of ethnic cleansing.







...Manning: Words expected from gutter snipe
Saturday, July 18th 2009




Prime Minister Patrick Manning last evening said that comments made in the Parliament by Opposition MP Dr Tim Gopeesingh, that ethnic cleansing is being carried out among doctors at the Port of Spain General Hospital, are the kind to be expected from "gutter snipe" and not a Parliamentarian.

Manning further said that the Parliament is no place for "that kind of talk", as yesterday's debate on a bill concerning ambulance services in this country turned into one that was almost overtaken by the issue of race, after Gopeesingh said there were more doctors of African descent than Indian descent at the public health institution.

"I don't want you to bring it. I'm not interested in it. You see, Mr Speaker, it would have been enough if the member had come and said 'on the basis of this evidence I make this statement', I would have objected also, I would have objected also, Mr Speaker, because evidence or no evidence, that kind of talk in a Parliament like this does us no good," Manning said.

The Prime Minister's comments came in an unplanned contribution to the debate on the Emergency Ambulance Services and Emergency Medical Personnel Bill, 2009, during the House of Representatives sitting at the Red House, Port of Spain.

He made them in response to Gopeesingh's comments earlier in the proceedings that according to what he had been told, there was ethnic cleansing being carried out among doctors at the Port of Spain General Hospital.

Saying that he had respect for Gopeesingh as a doctor and a senior Parliamentarian, Manning said he was "very much taken aback when on the basis on what the honourabale member said he was told, he sought to come to the Parliament to raise an issue of race and to raise it in such a manner that could be the source of tremendous discord".

"It is not the kind of talk that I would ascribe to a member of Parliament. It sounded like the kind of talk that you will expect from a gutter snipe, that is how it sounded to me. Most inappropriate," Manning said, calling on Gopeesingh to withdraw the remarks